What are defense mechanisms?
Defense mechanisms were first described in
1874 by Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis and the most illustrious of
Austrian psychiatrists. He identified strategies that we use to protect
ourselves from suffering. At the time, defense mechanisms were reserved to
describing and explaining abnormal behavior expressed by psychotic patients.
The
definition used at the time and which is still in use today is that of "a
defensive mechanism developed by the ego when under pressure by the superego
and external reality which enables us to fight anxiety."
The
human mind in all of its vast complexity elaborates defense mechanisms so that
it can function in the face of problems or setbacks in society and life in
general
Development and
dynamics of defense mechanism
It
is essential to first understand that defense mechanisms emerge from a conflict
between two personality components. First, there is the superego, which
represents an individual’s moral anatomy, the internal psyche wherein the
notions of good and evil and punishment and reward lie.
Through the superego, the individual
is conflicted by social constraints, pressures and subsequent guilt. As a
result, the individual may be severely or unavoidably dragged “upwards” to a
level that is considered noble, pure or perfect. The superego controls
the id by putting the two components in
On the opposite spectrum, the id drags
an individual “downwards” by overcoming the constraints and taboos of the superego.
The French term Ça is an approximate translation of the German term Das
Es used by Freud and its English counterpart (id). It roughly means
something that is undifferentiated, an impulse, and a source of energy that is
often associated with a physical desire or the libido which in itself is
associated with an individual’s sexuality.
The ego is an unconscious component
which mediates the id and superego. The ego strives to
find a balance between the id's instinctual requirements and the moral
and social prescriptions of the superego. Patrick Juignet described this
phenomenon when he wrote: “The ego acts as a regulator and as a
controller.” Its main purpose is to manage the individual's various and
contradictory necessity such as the conflict between drives and reality. The ego
is not only associated with intelligence, but also with shrewdness and the
willingness to possess. The ego is in contact with the outside world and
has control over reality. The superego guides the ego and the id
provides its energy. The ego satisfies within certain boundaries the
needs of the id.
The individual attempts to defend himself
in the context of a conflict between the id and the superego, to
meet the requirements of reality, and also when facing an internal or external
threat to his bio-psychological integrity. The individual uses the ego to
erect mechanisms, thoughts, feelings, behaviours (usually unconsciously to
forget, minimize, deform or project reality onto another), and so on to protect
himself against stress, anxiety, loss of self-image, a conflict or any other
threat. These are the defense mechanisms that he erects to protect himself.
Defense mechanisms are prevalent in our
lives. They are generated by conflicts in our social or family relationships,
by existential problems in our evolution towards maturity, and by academic or
professional setbacks. Our worries, lack of self-confidence or confidence in
others, and feelings of guilt and personal inadequacy are among the main
indicators of the use of defense mechanisms.
Identifying and measuring defense
mechanisms are important elements in psychotherapy for dealing with personality
disorders. The expression of defense mechanisms reflects the hypothesis that
they obnubilate significant problems.
Various scales exist to measure defense
mechanisms. Perry's Defense Mechanism Rating Scale (DMRS) makes it possible to
monitor the evolution of patients undergoing therapy based on the expression
and intensity of defense mechanisms. These tools allow for a more thorough
clinical assessment.
Each type of mechanism expressed exposes
its own set of character features, needs and behaviours. For example, projection
reveals a suspicious personality expressed through excessive
sensitivity, an inability to forgive others’ mistakes, negatively interpreting
events or other people’s behaviour, unjustifiable suspicion towards others, and
overemphasizing one’s rights and self-importance.
Certain defense mechanisms have an adaptive
function and are thus identified as mature mechanisms. They are used by
"healthy" individuals in normal situations. On the other hand,
immature defense mechanisms are more defensive in general and are
characteristic of higher levels of distress.
Perry’s DMRS includes among mature ones,
mechanisms such as repression, affiliation, altruism, anticipation,
self-assertiveness, avoidance, humour, and sublimation. Immature mechanisms include
splitting, intellectualization, omnipotence, rationalization, projection, and
so on. Freud initially described 10 defense mechanisms, but the list has
expanded over time with advances in psychiatry and psychotherapy.
How do defense mechanisms become
counter-productive?
Certain defense mechanisms are effective in
controlling anxiety and protecting individuals from suffering, whereas others
are inadequate and when used in a repetitive, compulsive manner. They thus become
counter-productive. Defense mechanisms are not the cause of a given pathology;
the individual’s use of the mechanisms is (i.e. frequency, intensity or
context). Defense mechanisms are beneficial when they help an individual adapt
to or tolerate difficult situations. These mechanisms become counter-productive
when they cloud an individual’s awareness, cut him off from reality, or
undermine his functioning and relationships.
Examples to illustrate how defense
mechanisms are used
Observing the use of defense mechanisms in
everyday life helps us understand certain behaviours expressed by others and
also tells us a lot about ourselves. Listed below are real-life situations
which will help you to understand how defense mechanisms are expressed in their
world. A broad range of mechanisms is covered, but only three are listed.
The
story of Judith (Judith’s problems)
Judith is a student, Her beloved mother
suffers from cancer. This affects Judith’s thoughts and disrupts her studies.
She has a hard time concentrating and getting rid of this painful image.
Despite her usual emotional state, she responds to her friend Gerta’s questions
by detailing her mother's treatments rationally. This
defense mechanism is referred to as intellectualization, and
allows Judith to express abstract and detached thinking to control or minimize
overwhelming emotions.Judith would like to go out with her
friends to the movies, to exercise with her boyfriend and to go on vacation,
but she tells herself that she cannot as she must remain with her mother. She
stays by her mother’s bedside, diligently attending to her needs and repressing
any desire to go out, doing so only under serious circumstances. This defense mechanism is known as sublimation.
It allows an individual to translate his socially unacceptable drives or
feelings into morally and socially acceptable ones. judith therefore gets the
satisfaction of accomplishing her mission and a feeling of having nobly accomplished
her family duty.
Often annoyed by the requests of her mother
to whom she refuses nothing, she treats her younger sister who tries to help
her harshly. She constantly criticizes her, accusing her of being stiff and
clumsy. Judith is expressing displacement. Unable
to tell her mother what she feels, she transfers her exasperation to her
younger sister.
She feels overwhelmed by events. The other
day, concerned by her mother’s condition, her studies and household chores, she
completely forgot about her doctor’s appointment. The subconscious fears of the
impending results and the emotional overload that she is experiencing have
provoked repression or suppression. Suppression: the
individual relegates to the unconscious an idea, emotion or experience which in
the conscious realm is a source of pain or worry
To give herself strength to deal with the
situation, Judith thinks about the moment when her mother will have completed
her chemotherapy and will once again be the head of the family. She will no
longer have to care for household chores, do grocery shopping, and will be able
to enjoy recreational activities with her friends. This adaptive defense
mechanism, known as anticipation, allows
a person to experience in advance the emotions associated with a given
situation. This mechanism substitutes current anxiety for a future benefit. Anticipation
is not always positive, as inevitably expecting negative situations can
in itself become a source of anxiety.
There comes a time when Judith’s mother
enters the terminal phase of her illness. Judith is deeply affected and is
panicked by the upcoming math exam. She nonetheless coolly sits in front of her
exam and completes it. Emotional dissociation allows her to detach herself from the emotional significance
of her mother’s condition to focus on her exam.
In Judith’s story, Intellectualisation,
sublimation and anticipation act like analgesics
which prevent her pain from expressing itself. Emotional dissociation allows
her to function by dissociating herself from the event. Repression allows
Judith to temporarily forget a painful appointment whereas displacement allows
her to remove her repressed tension by directing it against her sister. These
mechanisms allow Judith to survive an extremely painful situation in relative
stability.
The story of Sandra (Sandra’s problem)
Sandra is a young but difficult
student; She has her own way of
“behaving” as her friends say. She tends to be theatrical, talks a lot about
herself, puts herself in the limelight with her emotions and adventures. This
is a personality trait that surprises by its importance. Freud refers to this process as “emphasizing affects”. “It
is the act of emphasizing the expression of one’s affects and using them in an
excessive manner to avoid their rational explanation and, from the onset, their
explanation. These feelings are therefore unconsciously magnified for defensive
purposes". Sandra
experienced many problems during her childhood, beginning when her parents
divorced. There were troubling moments as her father was suspected of abusing
her. She was six years old at the time, but cannot remember the events evoked
by her mother. She has forgotten everything about that period in her life. Sandra
represses the traumatic memories into the unconscious. Repression is a defense mechanism which allows Sandra to push into the
unconscious memories, thoughts and morally or socially unacceptable actions
such as those committed by her father.
Sandra doesn't really remember her
father. She nonetheless has positive feelings for him and finds all kinds of
excuses. He is sort of a fascinating figure for her. Sandra
experiences what is known as
Stockholm
syndrome: the
victim identifies with the aggressor. Sandra overcomes her sorrow by repeating to herself that a
father cannot be all that bad. To her, that is totally unimaginable.
Aggressive by nature, Sandra is
often hostile to her companions, who do not understand her behavior. She later
regrets her actions, experiences guilt and wishes to fix her mistake because
she doesn’t wish to lose her friends. She repeatedly calls them and apologizes
over and over again. She buys them modest gifts and even flowers. This defense mechanism is known as Undoing. In response to a
feeling of guilt, the individual attempts to undo his words or actions through
excuses, flattery or by offering presents.
Sandra often complains of various
physical ailments that she dramatizes and forcefully repeats to her friends in
detail. She is concerned as she believes that she is suffering from a serious
ailment. This defense mechanism, in which an
individual's emotional anxiety manifests itself in the form of physical
symptoms, is known as somatization or conversion . Sandra’s
body expresses what she doesn’t. conversion is generally associated
with hysteria and is a manifestation of transformation sensations in the limbs
or members, of paresis, or paralysis.
Sandra’s behaviour also results in her
experiencing bouts of depression. In those moments, she sees herself in an
extremely negative light, torments herself and feels guilty about her
disruptive behaviour. Sandra tells herself that she’s not worth anything, that
she doesn’t know why she is alive and that it would be best if she just
disappeared. This is an extremely dangerous milestone in her evolution. This is an example of turning against the self (devaluation)
wherein the individual is unable to express his/her aggressiveness towards
others or having gone through all methods to express it. The person thinks that
he/she is guilty and turns this aggressiveness against the self. feels anger
against himself, blames himself and could potentially commit suicide.
In this story, Emphasizing affects,
repression, Stockholm syndrome, undoing, somatisation (conversion) and turning
against the self (devaluation) are all mechanisms that Sandra uses to
forget, obnubilate or transform the affects of anxiety, hostility or
aggressiveness, which she deemed socially unacceptable behavior and which she
converts into guilt
The story of Franklin (Franklin’s
perfectionism)
Franklin is also a student; he is
bright and successful in everything that he undertakes. he spares no effort as
he is a perfectionist. His room is always tidy, he studies every day and learns
his subjects by heart. Franklin is an exemplary student. To guarantee his own
success, he methodically follows routines. When he arrives home, he showers,
prepares a Spartan meal, reviews his notes and start doing his homework. He
never sways from her routine as he would then experience anxiety and be gripped
by fear of failing. he doesn't allow himself to be swayed. He has few recreational
activities and friends. Franklin is engaged in ritualization,
a defense mechanism that could potentially lead to an obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Ritualization means establishing an order in which a number of
tasks are to be carried out and which in turn take on a magical meaning.
Following the ritual overcomes the meaning of the action itself. It becomes
predominant and even constructive in the individuals life. This mechanism
protects the individual from anxiety, but it is not always efficient as he
risks becoming a slave to his repetitive rituals.
Franklin’s
role model is his elder sister, an extremely brilliant student in medicine. Franklin
attributes real or imaginary qualities which he exaggerates to his sister. He
is applying both idealization and identification. Idealization is a
defense mechanism in which a person overemphasizes another individual’s
qualities which he attributes to himself or to another. This mechanism makes
Lucy feel stronger. He makes his imperfections and limits by identifying with
his supposedly perfect sister. He also identifies with or incorporates his
sister’s values and qualities. This results in poor self-image because Franklin
experiences the need to become another individual.
When his acquaintances question him
about his unshakable rituals, he practices avoidance, a mechanism in which
an individual intentionally or unintentionally turns to the unconscious
thoughts, desires, or emotionally loaded situations in order to avoid thinking,
speaking, justifying and putting them into question. The individual therefore
avoids anxiety, fear or other inconveniences.
This avoidance mechanism also has particular
characteristics. As he fears death, he avoids walking in front of the rooms of
terminally ill patients during his work. People who are extremely anxious or
who suffer from phobia or panic disorders often adopt avoidance when dealing
with certain situations (contra-phobic behaviour).
In this story, Ritualization,
idealization, identification and avoidance protects Franklin from
anxiety and fear of failure, of not being up to standards. They also manage his
self-image and help him to rise his admired sister’s level.
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